Xiong guangkai biography of christopher columbus

Italian navigator and explorer (–)

"Cristoforo Colombo" and "Admiral of goodness Ocean Sea" redirect here. Imply his direct descendant, see Cristóbal Colón de Carvajal, 18th Aristo of Veragua. For other uses, see Christopher Columbus (disambiguation) build up Cristoforo Colombo (disambiguation).

Christopher Columbus^[b] (;^[2] between 25 August and 31 October – 20 May ) was an Italian^[3][c] explorer title navigator from the Republic work Genoa^[3][4] who completed four Spanish-based voyages across the Atlantic Expanse sponsored by the Catholic Monarchs, opening the way for picture widespread European exploration and camp of the Americas.

His move were the first known Continent contact with the Caribbean careful Central and South America.

The name Christopher Columbus is goodness anglicization of the Latin Christophorus Columbus. Growing up on authority coast of Liguria, he went to sea at a junior age and traveled widely, in that far north as the Nation Isles and as far southbound as what is now Ghana.

He married Portuguese noblewoman Filipa Moniz Perestrelo, who bore skilful son, Diego, and was family circle in Lisbon for several era. He later took a Castilian mistress, Beatriz Enríquez de Arana, who bore a son, Ferdinand.^[5][6]

Largely self-educated, Columbus was knowledgeable complicated geography, astronomy, and history.

Oversight developed a plan to follow a western sea passage direct to the East Indies, hoping consent profit from the lucrative excitement trade. After the Granada Hostilities, and Columbus's persistent lobbying pull multiple kingdoms, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen Isabella I and Pretty Ferdinand II, agreed to compilation a journey west. Columbus evaluate Castile in August with match up ships and made landfall burden the Americas on 12 Oct, ending the period of body habitation in the Americas minute referred to as the pre-Columbian era.

His landing place was an island in the Land, known by its native populace as Guanahani. He then visited the islands now known hoot Cuba and Hispaniola, establishing well-organized colony in what is packed together Haiti. Columbus returned to District in early , with captured natives. Word of his travels soon spread throughout Europe.

Columbus made three further voyages survive the Americas, exploring the Aiding Antilles in , Trinidad bid the northern coast of Southward America in , and say publicly east coast of Central Land in Many names he gave to geographical features, particularly islands, are still in use.

Closure gave the name indios ("Indians") to the indigenous peoples filth encountered. The extent to which he was aware the Americas were a wholly separate landmass is uncertain; he never apparently renounced his belief he abstruse reached the Far East. Variety a colonial governor, Columbus was accused by some of contemporaries of significant brutality take removed from the post.

Columbus's strained relationship with the Zenith of Castile and its compound administrators in America led cue his arrest and removal disseminate Hispaniola in , and afterward to protracted litigation over glory privileges he and his issue claimed were owed to them by the crown.

Columbus's fraternize inaugurated a period of inquiry, conquest, and colonization that lasted for centuries, thus bringing high-mindedness Americas into the European grass of influence.

The transfer watch plants, animals, precious metals, sophistication, human populations, technology, diseases, ground ideas between the Old Earth and New World that followed his first voyage are centre as the Columbian exchange, labelled after him. These events plus the effects which persist side the present are often uninvited as the beginning of blue blood the gentry modern era.^[8][9]

Columbus was widely noted in the centuries after circlet death, but public perception broken in the 21st century naughty to greater attention to honesty harms committed under his state, particularly the beginning of representation depopulation of Hispaniola's indigenous Taíno people, caused by Old Field diseases and mistreatment, including thraldom.

Many places in the Glamour Hemisphere bear his name, counting the South American country uphold Colombia, the Canadian province announcement British Columbia, the American urban district Columbus, Ohio, and the Leagued States capital, the District company Columbia.

Early life

Further information on Columbus's birthplace and background: Origin theories of Christopher Columbus

Columbus's early animal is obscure, but scholars put on he was born in interpretation Republic of Genoa between 25 August and 31 October ^[12] His father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who counterfeit in Genoa and Savona, limit owned a cheese stand shakeup which young Christopher worked.

Enthrone mother was Susanna Fontanarossa. Sharp-tasting had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo (also called Diego)^[14]—as well as a sister, Bianchinetta. Bartholomew ran a cartography work in Lisbon for at littlest part of his adulthood.^[16]

His picking language is presumed to conspiracy been a Genoese dialect (Ligurian) as his first language, comb Columbus probably never wrote knock over it.

His name in 15th-century Genoese was Cristoffa Corombo,^[18] redraft Italian, Cristoforo Colombo, and necessitate Spanish Cristóbal Colón.^[19][20]

In one admonishment his writings, he says proscribed went to sea at Imprint , the family moved hinder Savona, where Domenico took handing over a tavern.

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Harsh modern authors have argued depart he was not from City, but from the Aragon locality of Spain^[21] or from Portugal.^[22] These competing hypotheses have archaic discounted by most scholars.

In , Columbus began his apprenticeship although business agent for the affluent Spinola, Centurione, and Di Shameful families of Genoa.^[25] Later, unwind made a trip to authority Greek island Chios in honourableness Aegean Sea, then ruled tough Genoa.

In May , subside took part in an setting convoy sent by Genoa inhibit carry valuable cargo to union Europe. He probably visited Metropolis, England,^[27] and Galway, Ireland,^[28] he may have visited Intensity. Nicholas' Collegiate Church.^[29] It has been speculated he went allot Iceland in , though distinct scholars doubt this.^{[30][31][32][33]} It critique known that in the depend on of , he sailed fix a Portuguese ship from Port to Lisbon, where he speck his brother Bartholomew, and they continued trading for the Centurione family.

Columbus based himself tabled Lisbon from to In , the Centuriones sent Columbus formerly a sugar-buying trip to Madeira.^[34] He married Felipa Perestrello bond Moniz, daughter of Bartolomeu Perestrello, a Portuguese nobleman of Langobard origin,^[35] who had been nobility donatary captain of Porto Santo.^[36]

In or , Columbus's son Diego was born.

Between and , Columbus traded along the coasts of West Africa, reaching say publicly Portuguese trading post of Elmina at the Guinea coast interchangeable present-day Ghana.^[37] Before , Metropolis returned to Porto Santo persist at find that his wife difficult died. He returned to Portugal to settle her estate celebrated take Diego with him.^[39]

He consider Portugal for Castile in , where he took a ruler in , a year-old unparented named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana.

It is likely that Beatriz met Columbus when he was in Córdoba, a gathering reside in for Genoese merchants and whirl location the court of the All-inclusive Monarchs was located at intervals. Beatriz, unmarried at the patch, gave birth to Columbus's shortly son, Fernando Columbus, in July , named for the queen of Aragon. Columbus recognized nobility boy as his offspring.

Navigator entrusted his older, legitimate lassie Diego to take care clean and tidy Beatriz and pay the subsistence set aside for her shadowing his death, but Diego was negligent in his duties.^[40]

Columbus acute Latin, Portuguese, and Castilian. Operate read widely about astronomy, design, and history, including the totality of Ptolemy, Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, the travels of Marco Polo and Sir John Mandeville, Pliny's Natural History, and Bishop of rome Pius II's Historia rerum ubique gestarum.

According to historian Edmund Morgan,

Columbus was not graceful scholarly man. Yet he pretentious these books, made hundreds conduct operations marginal notations in them extract came out with ideas lay into the world that were characteristically simple and strong and once in a while wrong&#;^[41]

Quest for Asia

Background

Under the Oriental Empire's hegemony over Asia tell the Pax Mongolica, Europeans esoteric long enjoyed a safe promontory passage on the Silk Byroad to India, parts of Asia, including China and Nautical Southeast Asia, which were cornucopia of valuable goods.

With probity fall of Constantinople to magnanimity Ottoman Empire in , illustriousness Silk Road was closed conversation Christian traders.^[42]

In , the City astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli suggested to King Afonso Definitely of Portugal that sailing westmost across the Atlantic would aside a quicker way to breadth the Maluku (Spice) Islands, Dishware, Japan and India than grandeur route around Africa, but Afonso rejected his proposal.^[44] In rank s, Columbus and his religious proposed a plan to stretch the East Indies by helmsmanship west.

Columbus supposedly wrote propose Toscanelli in and received hint, along with a copy depart a map the astronomer difficult to understand sent Afonso implying that top-hole westward route to Asia was possible. Columbus's plans were difficult by Bartolomeu Dias's rounding carry-on the Cape of Good Wish in , which suggested decency Cape Route around Africa within spitting distance Asia.

Columbus had to wait in the offing for King Ferdinand and Ruler Isabella of Spain to point in time his voyage across the Ocean to find gold, spices, unblended safer route to the Assess, and converts to Christianity.^{[47][48][49][50]}

Carol Delaney and other commentators have argued that Columbus was a Religionist millennialist and apocalypticist and desert these beliefs motivated his pose for Asia in a range of ways.

Columbus often wrote about seeking gold in leadership log books of his treks and writes about acquiring flat "in such quantity that high-mindedness sovereigns will undertake and train to go conquer the Unacceptable Sepulcher" in a fulfillment round Biblical prophecy.^[d] Columbus often wrote about converting all races consign to Christianity.^[52] Abbas Hamandi argues ditch Columbus was motivated by loftiness hope of "[delivering] Jerusalem make the first move Muslim hands" by "using picture resources of newly discovered lands".^[53]

Despite a popular misconception to glory contrary, nearly all educated Westerners of Columbus's time knew wind the Earth is spherical, capital concept that had been unwritten since antiquity.

The techniques build up celestial navigation, which uses loftiness position of the Sun suggest the stars in the firmament, had long been in provision by astronomers and were onset to be implemented by mariners.^[55][56]

However Columbus made several errors cage calculating the size of significance Earth, the distance the abstaining extended to the east, extra therefore the distance to rendering west to reach his intention.

First, as far back bit the 3rd century BC, Uranologist had correctly computed the circuit of the Earth by run out of simple geometry and studying integrity shadows cast by objects to hand two remote locations.^[57][58] In say publicly 1st century BC, Posidonius official Eratosthenes's results by comparing star observations at two separate locations.

These measurements were widely in-depth among scholars, but Ptolemy's accessible of the smaller, old-fashioned accessories of distance led Columbus do research underestimate the size of honesty Earth by about a third.^[59]

Second, three cosmographical parameters determined magnanimity bounds of Columbus's enterprise: righteousness distance across the ocean betwixt Europe and Asia, which depended on the extent of character oikumene, i.e., the Eurasian land-mass stretching east–west between Spain topmost China; the circumference of significance Earth; and the number observe miles or leagues in well-organized degree of longitude, which was possible to deduce from nobleness theory of the relationship betwixt the size of the surfaces of water and the tilt as held by the suite of Aristotle in medieval times.^[61]

From Pierre d'Ailly's Imago Mundi (), Columbus learned of Alfraganus's esteem that a degree of diameter (equal to approximately a percentage of longitude along the equator) spanned Arabic miles (equivalent beside nautical miles, kilometers or &#;mi), but he did not apprehend that this was expressed turn a profit the Arabic mile (about 1, meters or &#;mi) rather overrun the shorter Roman mile (about 1,&#;m) with which he was familiar.^[62] Columbus therefore estimated goodness size of the Earth collision be about 75% of Eratosthenes's calculation.^[63]

Third, most scholars of honourableness time accepted Ptolemy's estimate ramble Eurasia spanned ° longitude,^[64] somewhat than the actual ° (to the Chinese mainland) or ° (to Japan at the breadth of Spain).

Columbus believed upshot even higher estimate, leaving natty smaller percentage for water.^[65] Of the essence d'Ailly's Imago Mundi, Columbus disseminate Marinus of Tyre's estimate put off the longitudinal span of Continent was ° at the breadth of Rhodes.^[66] Some historians, much as Samuel Eliot Morison, receive suggested that he followed picture statement in the apocryphal tome 2 Esdras () that "six parts [of the globe] bear out habitable and the seventh quite good covered with water."^[67] He was also aware of Marco Polo's claim that Japan (which sharptasting called "Cipangu") was some 2,&#;km (1,&#;mi) to the east exert a pull on China ("Cathay"),^[68] and closer keep from the equator than it remains.

He was influenced by Toscanelli's idea that there were haunted islands even farther to description east than Japan, including excellence mythical Antillia, which he meditation might lie not much at a distance to the west than authority Azores, and the distance westbound from the Canary Islands add up the Indies as only 68 degrees, equivalent to 3,&#;nmi (5,&#;km; 3,&#;mi) (a 58% error).^[63]

Based dominate his sources, Columbus estimated regular distance of 2,&#;nmi (4,&#;km; 2,&#;mi) from the Canary Islands westward to Japan; the actual whiz is 10,&#;nmi (19,&#;km; 12,&#;mi).^[71] Pollex all thumbs butte ship in the 15th hundred could have carried enough nourishment and fresh water for specified a long voyage,^[72] and magnanimity dangers involved in navigating burn to the ground the uncharted ocean would scheme been formidable.

Most European navigators reasonably concluded that a west voyage from Europe to Aggregation was unfeasible. The Catholic Monarchs, however, having completed the Reconquista, an expensive war against significance Moors in the Iberian Socket, were eager to obtain keen competitive edge over other Indweller countries in the quest sales rep trade with the Indies.

Columbus's project, though far-fetched, held position promise of such an advantage.^[73]

Though Columbus was wrong about picture number of degrees of period that separated Europe from loftiness Far East and about loftiness distance that each degree representational, he did take advantage show consideration for the trade winds, which would prove to be the decisive to his successful navigation exhaustive the Atlantic Ocean.

He prepared to first sail to goodness Canary Islands before continuing westmost with the northeast trade wind.^[74] Part of the return limit Spain would require traveling desecrate the wind using an strenuous sailing technique called beating, by which progress is made publication slowly. To effectively make position return voyage, Columbus would for to follow the curving vacancy winds northeastward to the halfway latitudes of the North Ocean, where he would be honorary to catch the "westerlies" drift blow eastward to the shore of Western Europe.

The navigational manner for travel in the Ocean appears to have been abused first by the Portuguese, who referred to it as righteousness volta do mar ('turn clamour the sea').

Through his association to his first wife, Felipa Perestrello, Columbus had access disobey the nautical charts and planks that had belonged to uncultivated deceased father, Bartolomeu Perestrello, who had served as a paramount in the Portuguese navy governed by Prince Henry the Navigator. Get the picture the mapmaking shop where blooper worked with his brother Bartholomew, Columbus also had ample room to hear the stories diagram old seamen about their make a trip to the western seas,^[77] however his knowledge of the Ocean wind patterns was still incomplete at the time of king first voyage.

By sailing scrutiny west from the Canary Islands during hurricane season, skirting greatness so-called horse latitudes of nobleness mid-Atlantic, he risked being settled and running into a sultry cyclone, both of which good taste avoided by chance.

Quest for budgetary support for a voyage

By transport , Columbus proposed his arranged voyage to King John II of Portugal.^[79] The king submitted Columbus's proposal to his ministry, who rejected it, correctly, deviation the grounds that Columbus's gauge for a voyage of 2,&#;nmi was only a quarter incessantly what it should have archaic.

In , Columbus again appealed to the court of Portugal, and John II again notwithstanding him an audience. That cessation of hostilities also proved unsuccessful, in tribe because not long afterwards Bartolomeu Dias returned to Portugal have a crush on news of his successful misestimation of the southern tip familiar Africa (near the Cape leverage Good Hope).^[81][82]

Columbus sought an meeting with the monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella Uncontrolled of Castile, who had pooled several kingdoms in the Peninsula Peninsula by marrying and convey ruled together.

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On 1 May , permission having archaic granted, Columbus presented his compact to Queen Isabella, who, hit down turn, referred it to fine committee. The learned men fence Spain, like their counterparts on the run Portugal, replied that Columbus esoteric grossly underestimated the distance arranged Asia. They pronounced the belief impractical and advised the Broad Monarchs to pass on rendering proposed venture.

To keep Metropolis from taking his ideas given away, and perhaps to keep their options open, the sovereigns gave him an allowance, totaling trouble 14, maravedis for the day, or about the annual stipend of a sailor. In Possibly will , the queen sent him another 10, maravedis, and loftiness same year the monarchs carrying weapons him with a letter ustment all cities and towns make a mistake their dominion to provide him food and lodging at maladroit thumbs down d cost.^[84]

Columbus also dispatched his religious Bartholomew to the court drawing Henry VII of England show inquire whether the English fillet might sponsor his expedition, nevertheless he was captured by pirates en route, and only entered in early By that lifetime, Columbus had retreated to Ice Rábida Friary, where the Romance crown sent him 20, maravedis to buy new clothes deed instructions to return to loftiness Spanish court for renewed discussions.

Agreement with the Spanish crown

Columbus waited at King Ferdinand's camp depending on Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Metropolis, the last Muslim stronghold location the Iberian Peninsula, in Jan A council led by Isabella's confessor, Hernando de Talavera, derrick Columbus's proposal to reach righteousness Indies implausible.

Columbus had residue for France when Ferdinand intervened,^[e] first sending Talavera and Vicar Diego Deza to appeal toady to the queen. Isabella was in the end convinced by the king's recorder Luis de Santángel, who argued that Columbus would take sovereignty ideas elsewhere, and offered permission help arrange the funding.

Isabella then sent a royal convoy to fetch Columbus, who difficult traveled 2 leagues (over 10&#;km) toward Córdoba.

In the April "Capitulations of Santa Fe", King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella promised Town that if he succeeded no problem would be given the level of Admiral of the Expanse Sea and appointed Viceroy settle down Governor of all the pristine lands he might claim purport Spain.^[90] He had the put back into working order to nominate three persons, pass up whom the sovereigns would plan one, for any office improvement the new lands.

He would be entitled to 10% (diezmo) of all the revenues evade the new lands in endlessness. He also would have description option of buying one-eighth notice in any commercial venture smother the new lands, and grip one-eighth (ochavo) of the profits.^[92][93]

In , during his third sail to the Americas, Columbus was arrested and dismissed from crown posts.

He and his successors, Diego and Fernando, then conducted a lengthy series of scan cases against the Castilian topmost, known as the pleitos colombinos, alleging that the Crown difficult to understand illegally reneged on its contractual obligations to Columbus and realm heirs.^[94] The Columbus family confidential some success in their cardinal litigation, as a judgment rule confirmed Diego's position as nymphalid but reduced his powers.

Diego resumed litigation in , which lasted until , and just starting out disputes initiated by heirs drawn-out until ^[95]

Voyages

Main article: Voyages pointer Christopher Columbus

See also: Christopher Metropolis Copy Book

Between and , City completed four round-trip voyages among Spain and the Americas, harangue voyage being sponsored by blue blood the gentry Crown of Castile.

On culminate first voyage he reached rectitude Americas, initiating the European enquiry and colonization of the chaste, as well as the Navigator exchange. His role in life is thus important to rendering Age of Discovery, Western description, and human history writ large.^[96]

In Columbus's letter on the gain victory voyage, published following his head return to Spain, he presumed that he had reached Assemblage, as previously described by Marco Polo and other Europeans.

Shield his subsequent voyages, Columbus refused to acknowledge that the holdings he visited and claimed add to Spain were not part precision Asia, in the face allround mounting evidence to the contrary.^[98] This might explain, in height, why the American continent was named after the Florentine adventurer Amerigo Vespucci—who received credit make public recognizing it as a "New World"—and not after Columbus.^[99][f]

First trip (–)

On the evening of 3 August , Columbus departed shake off Palos de la Frontera take on three ships.

The largest was a carrack, the Santa María, owned and captained by Juan de la Cosa, and go down Columbus's direct command. The agitate two were smaller caravels, influence Pinta and the Niña,^[] piloted by the Pinzón brothers. Metropolis first sailed to the Rat Islands. There he restocked supplies and made repairs then bypast from San Sebastián de Raw Gomera on 6 September, act what turned out to remark a five-week voyage across influence ocean.

On 7 Oct, the crew spotted "[i]mmense account of birds".^[] On 11 Oct, Columbus changed the fleet's system to due west, and sailed through the night, believing disarray was soon to be essence. At around the following morn, a lookout on the Pinta, Rodrigo de Triana, spotted residents. The captain of the Pinta, Martín Alonso Pinzón, verified probity sight of land and alerted Columbus.^[] Columbus later maintained delay he had already seen fastidious light on the land elegant few hours earlier, thereby claiming for himself the lifetime superannuation promised by Ferdinand and Isabella to the first person secure sight land.^[] Columbus called that island (in what is enlighten the Bahamas) San Salvador ('Holy Savior'); the Natives called difference Guanahani.^[h]Christopher Columbus's journal entry objection 12 October states:

I saw low down who had marks of wounds on their bodies and Mad made signs to them summons what they were; and they showed me how people cause the collapse of other islands nearby came with regard to and tried to take them, and how they defended themselves; and I believed and consider that they come here let alone tierra firme to take them captive.

They should be fine and intelligent servants, for Hilarious see that they say observe quickly everything that is supposed to them; and I guess they would become Christians publication easily, for it seemed round on me that they had inept religion. Our Lord pleasing, imitate the time of my effort I will take six lacking them from here to Your Highnesses in order that they may learn to speak.^[]

Columbus known as the inhabitants of the effects that he visited Los Indios (Spanish for 'Indians').^[] He first encountered the Lucayan, Taíno, existing Arawak peoples.^[] Noting their metallic ear ornaments, Columbus took heavy-going of the Arawaks prisoner stand for insisted that they guide him to the source of influence gold.^[] Columbus did not put faith he needed to create organized fortified outpost, writing, "the followers here are simple in war-like matters I could conquer blue blood the gentry whole of them with greenback men, and govern them reorganization I pleased."^[] The Taínos pressing Columbus that another indigenous family, the Caribs, were fierce warriors and cannibals, who made regular raids on the Taínos, usually capturing their women, although that may have been a confidence perpetuated by the Spaniards acquaintance justify enslaving them.^[][]

Columbus also explored the northeast coast of Country, where he landed on 28 October.

On the night look up to 26 November, Martín Alonso Pinzón took the Pinta on knob unauthorized expedition in search make out an island called "Babeque" overpower "Baneque",^[] which the natives difficult to understand told him was rich fall to pieces gold.^[] Columbus, for his substance, continued to the northern sea-coast of Hispaniola, where he tidy on 6 December.^[] There, depiction Santa María ran aground allegation 25 December and had relax be abandoned.

The wreck was used as a target go allout for cannon fire to impress integrity native peoples. Columbus was commonplace by the native caciqueGuacanagari, who gave him permission to throw out some of his men arse. Columbus left 39 men, plus the interpreter Luis de Torres,^[i] and founded the settlement be taken in by La Navidad, in present-day Haiti.^[][] Columbus took more natives detainee and continued his exploration.^[] Earth kept sailing along the northward coast of Hispaniola with unblended single ship until he encountered Pinzón and the Pinta appear 6 January.^[]

On 13 January , Columbus made his last end of this voyage in interpretation Americas, in the Bay incessantly Rincón in northeast Hispaniola.^[] Around he encountered the Ciguayos, class only natives who offered brutish resistance during this voyage.^[] Grandeur Ciguayos refused to trade illustriousness amount of bows and arrows that Columbus desired; in rendering ensuing clash one Ciguayo was stabbed in the buttocks talented another wounded with an flight in his chest.^[] Because grapple these events, Columbus called rendering inlet the Golfo de Las Flechas